Реферат: The Comparative Analysis Of The History Of The Computer Science And The Computer Engineering In The USA And Ukraine

Реферат: The Comparative Analysis Of The History Of The Computer Science And The Computer Engineering In The USA And Ukraine

The Comparative Analysis Of The History Of The Computer Science And The

HOWARD H. AIKEN AND THE COMPUTER

Howard Aiken's contributions to the development of the computer -notably the

Harvard Mark I (IBM ASSC) machine, and its successor the Mark II - are often

excluded from the mainstream history of computers on two technicalities. The

first is that Mark I and Mark II were electro-mechanical rather than

electronic; the second one is that Aiken was never convinced that computer

programs should be treated as data in what has come to be known as the von

Neumann concept, or the stored program.

It is not proposed to discuss here the origins and significance of the stored

program. Nor I wish to deal with the related problem of whether the machines

before the stored program were or were not “computers”. This subject is

complicated by the confusion in actual names given to machines. For example,

the ENIAC, which did not incorporate a stored program, was officially named a

computer: Electronic Numeral Integrator And Computer. But the first

stored-program machine to be put into regular operation was Maurice Wiles'

EDSAC: Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator. It seems to be rather

senseless to deny many truly significant innovations (by H.H.Aiken and by

Eckert and Mauchly), which played an important role in the history of

computers, on the arbitrary ground that they did not incorporate the

stored-program concept. Additionally, in the case of Aiken, it is significant

that there is a current computer technology that does not incorporate the

stored programs and that is designated as (at least by TEXAS INSTRUMENTS

â) as “Harvard architecture”, though, it should more properly be

called “Aiken architecture”. In this technology the program is fix and not

subject to any alteration save by intent - as in some computers used for

telephone switching and in ROM.

OPERATION OF THE ENIAC.

Aiken was a visionary, a man ahead of his times. Grace Hopper and others

remember his prediction in the late 1940s, even before the vacuum tube had

been wholly replaced by the transistor, that the time would come when a

machine even more powerful than the giant machines of those days could be

fitted into a space as small as a shoe box.

Some weeks before his death Aiken had made another prediction. He pointed out

that hardware considerations alone did not give a true picture of computer

costs. As hardware has become cheaper, software has been apt to get more

expensive. And then he gave us his final prediction: “The time will come”, he

said, “when manufacturers will gave away hardware in order to sell software”.

Time alone will tell whether or not this was his final look ahead into the

future.

DEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTERS IN THE USA

In the early 1960s, when computers were hulking mainframes that took up

entire rooms, engineers were already toying with the then - extravagant

notion of building a computer intended for the sole use of one person. by the

early 1970s, researches at Xerox's Polo Alto Research Center (Xerox PARC) had

realized that the pace of improvement in the technology of semiconductors -

the chips of silicon that are the building blocks of present-day electronics

- meant that sooner or later the PC would be extravagant no longer. They

foresaw that computing power would someday be so cheap that engineers would

be able to afford to devote a great deal of it simply to making non-technical

people more comfortable with these new information - handling tools. in their

labs, they developed or refined much of what constitutes PCs today, from

“mouse” pointing devices to software “windows”.

Although the work at Xerox PARC was crucial, it was not the spark that took PCs

out of the hands of experts and into the popular imagination. That happened

inauspiciously in January 1975, when the magazine Popular Electronics

put a new kit for hobbyists, called the Altair, on its cover. for the first

time, anybody with $400 and a soldering iron could buy and assemble his own

computer. The Altair inspired Steve Wosniak and Steve Jobs to build the first

Apple computer, and a young college dropout named Bill Gates to write software

for it. Meanwhile. the person who deserves the credit for inventing the Altair,

an engineer named Ed Roberts, left the industry he had spawned to go to medical

school. Now he is a doctor in small town in central Georgia.

To this day, researchers at Xerox and elsewhere pooh-pooh the Altair as too

primitive to have made use of the technology they felt was needed to bring

PCs to the masses. In a sense, they are right. The Altair incorporated one of

the first single-chip microprocessor - a semiconductor chip, that contained

all the basic circuits needed to do calculations - called the Intel 8080.

Although the 8080 was advanced for its time, it was far too slow to support

the mouse, windows, and elaborate software Xerox had developed. Indeed, it

wasn't until 1984, when Apple Computer's Macintosh burst onto the scene, that

PCs were powerful enough to fulfill the original vision of researchers. “The

kind of computing that people are trying to do today is just what we made at

PARC in the early 1970s,” says Alan Kay, a former Xerox researcher who jumped

to Apple in the early 1980s.

MACINTOSH PERFORMA 6200/6300

Researchers today are proceeding in the same spirit that motivated Kay and

his Xerox PARC colleagues in the 1970s: to make information more accessible

to ordinary people. But a look into today's research labs reveals very little

that resembles what we think of now as a PC. For one thing, researchers seem

eager to abandon the keyboard and monitor that are the PC's trademarks.

Instead they are trying to devise PCs with interpretive powers that are more

humanlike - PCs that can hear you and see you, can tell when you're in a bad

mood and know to ask questions when they don't understand something.

It is impossible to predict the invention that, like the Altair, crystallize

new approaches in a way that captures people's imagination.

Top 20 computer systems

From soldering irons to SparcStations, from MITS to Macintosh, personal

computers have evolved from do-it-yourself kits for electronic hobbyists into

machines that practically leap out of the box and set themselves up. What

enabled them to get from there to here? Innovation and determination. Here

are top 20 systems that made that rapid evolution possible.

There once was a time when you could buy a top-of-the-line computer for

$395. The only catch was that you had to build it yourself. Although the Altair

8800 wasn't actually the first personal computer (Scelbi Computer Consulting`s

8008-based Scelbi-8H kit probably took that honor in 1973), it grabbed

attention. MITS sold 2000 of them in 1975 - more than any single computer

before it.

Based on Intel`s 8-bit 8080 processor, the Altair 8800 kit included 256 bytes

of memory (upgradable, of course) and a toggle-switch-and-LED front panel.

For amenities such as keyboard, video terminals, and storage devices, you had

to go to one of the companies that sprang up to support the Altair with

expansion cards. In 1975, MITS offered 4- and 8-KB Altair versions of BASIC,

the first product developed by Bill Gates` and Paul Allen`s new company,

Microsoft.

If the personal computer hobbyists movement was simmering, 1975 saw it come

to a boil with the introduction of the Altair 8800.

Those of you who think of the IBM PC as the quintessential business

computers may be in for a surprise: The Apple II (together with VisiCalc) was

what really made people to look at personal computers as business tools, not

just toys.

The Apple II debuted at the first West Coast Computer Fair in San Francisco

in 1977. With built-in keyboard, graphics display, eight readily accessible

expansion slots, and BASIC built-into ROM, the Apple II was actually easy to

use. Some of its innovations, like built-in high-resolution color graphics

and a high-level language with graphics commands, are still extraordinary

features in desk top machines.

With a 6502 CPU, 16 KB of RAM, a 16-KB ROM, a cassette interface that never

really worked well (most Apple It ended up with the floppy drive the was

announced in 1978), and color graphics, the Apple II sold for $1298.

Also introduced at the first West Coast Computer Fair, Commondore`s PET

(Personal Electronic Transactor) started a long line of expensive personal

computers that brought computers to the masses. (The VIC-20 that followed was

the first computer to sell 1 million units, and the Commondore 64 after that

was the first to offer a whopping 64 KB of memory.)

The keyboard and small monochrome display both fit in the same one-piece

unit. Like the Apple II, the PET ran on MOS Technology's 6502. Its $795

price, key to the Pet's popularity supplied only 4 KB of RAM but included a

built-in cassette tape drive for data storage and 8-KB version of Microsoft

BASIC in its 14-KB ROM.

Remember the Trash 80? Sold at local Radio Shack stores in your choice of

color (Mercedes Silver), the TRS-80 was the first ready-to-go computer to use

Zilog`s Z80 processor.

The base unit was essentially a thick keyboard with 4 KB of RAM and 4 KB of

ROM (which included BASIC). An optional expansion box that connected by

ribbon cable allowed for memory expansion. A Pink Pearl eraser was standard

equipment to keep those ribbon cable connections clean.

Much of the first software for this system was distributed on audiocassettes

played in from Radio Shack cassette recorders.

By the end of the 1970s, garage start-ups were pass. Fortunately there were

other entrepreneurial possibilities. Take Adam Osborne, for example. He sold

Osborne Books to McGraw-Hill and started Osborne Computer. Its first product,

the 24-pound Osborne 1 Portable, boasted a low price of $1795.

More important, Osborne established the practice of bundling software - in

spades. The Osborne 1 came with nearly $1500 worth of programs: WordStar,

SuperCalc, BASIC, and a slew of CP/M utilities.

Business was looking good until Osborne preannounced its next version while

sitting on a warehouse full of Osborne 1S. Oops. Reorganization under Chapter

11 followed soon thereafter.

This is the system that launched a thousand innovations in 1981. The work of

some of the best people at Xerox PARC (Palo Alto Research Center) went into it.

Several of these - the mouse and a desktop GUI with icons - showed up two years

later in Apple`s Lisa and Macintosh computers. The Star wasn't what you would

call a commercial success, however. The main problem seemed to be how much it

cost. It would be nice to believe that someone shifted a decimal point

somewhere: The pricing started at $50,000.

Irony of ironies that someone at mainframe-centric IBM recognized the

business potential in personal computers. The result was in 1981 landmark

announcement of the IBM PC. Thanks to an open architecture, IBM's clout, and

Lotus 1-2-3 (announced one year later), the PC and its progeny made business

micros legitimate and transformed the personal computer world.

The PC used Intel`s 16-bit 8088, and for $3000, it came with 64 KB of RAM and a

51/4-inch floppy drive. The printer adapter and

monochrome monitor were extras, as was the color graphics adapter.

Compaq's Portable almost single-handedly created the PC clone market.

Although that was about all you could do with it single-handedly - it weighed a

ton. Columbia Data Products just preceded Compaq that year with the first true

IBM PC clone but didn't survive. It was Compaq's quickly gained reputation for

engineering and quality, and its essentially 100 percent IBM compatibility

(reverse-engineering, of course), that legitimized the clone market. But was it

really designed on a napkin?

Years before PC-compatible subnotebook computers, Radio Shack came out with

a book-size portable with a combination of features, battery life, weight, and

price that is still unbeatable. (Of course, the Z80-based Model 100 didn't have

to run Windows.)

The $800 Model 100 had only an 8-row by 40-column reflective LCD (large at

the time) but supplied ROM-based applications (including text editor,

communications program, and BASIC interpreter), a built-in modem, I/O ports,

nonvolatile RAM, and a great keyboard. Wieghing under 4 pounds, and with a

battery life measured in weeks (on four AA batteries), the Model 100 quickly

became the first popular laptop, especially among journalists.

With its battery-backed RAM, the Model 100 was always in standby mode, ready

to take notes, write a report, or go on-line. NEC`s PC 8201 was essentially

the same Kyocera-manufectured system.

Whether you saw it as a seductive invitation to personal computing or a

cop-out to wimps who were afraid of a command line, Apple`s Macintosh and its

GUI generated even more excitement than the IBM PC. Apple`s R&D people were

inspired by critical ideas from Xerox PARK (and practiced on Apple`s Lisa) but

added many of their own ideas to create a polished product that changed the way

people use computers.

The original Macintosh used Motorola's 16-bit 68000 microprocessor. At $2495,

the system offered a built-in-high-resolution monochrome display, the Mac OS,

and a single-button mouse. With only 128 KB of RAM, the Mac was underpowered at

first. But Apple included some key applications that made the Macintosh

immediately useful. (It was MacPaint that finally showed people what a mouse is

good for.)

George Orwell didn't foresee the AT in 1984. Maybe it was because Big Blue,

not Big Brother, was playing its cards close to its chest. The IBM AT set new

standards for performance and storage capacity. Intel`s blazingly fast 286 CPU

running at 6 MHz and 16-bit bus structure gave the AT several times the

performance of previous IBM systems. Hard drive capacity doubled from 10 MB to

20 MB (41 MB if you installed two drives - just donut ask how they did the

math), and the cost per megabyte dropped dramatically.

New 16-bit expansion slots meant new (and faster) expansion cards but

maintained downward compatibility with old 8-bit cards. These hardware

changes and new high-density 1.2-MB floppy drives meant a new version of PC-

DOS (the dreaded 3.0).

The price for an AT with 512 KB of RAM, a serial/parallel adapter, a high-

density floppy drive, and a 20-MB hard drive was well over $5000 - but much

less than what the pundits expected.

The Amiga introduced the world to multimedia. Although it cost only $1200,

the 68000-based Amiga 1000 did graphics, sound, and video well enough that many

broadcast professionals adopted it for special effects. Its sophisticated

multimedia hardware design was complex for a personal computer, as was its

multitasking, windowing OS.

While IBM was busy developing (would “wasting time on” be a better phrase?)

proprietary Micro Channel PS/2 system, clone vendors ALR and Compaq wrestled

away control of the x86 architecture and introduced the first 386-based

systems, the Access 386 and Deskpro 386. Both systems maintained backward

compatibility with the 286-based AT.

Compaq's Deskpro 386 had a further performance innovation in its Flex bus

architecture. Compaq split the x86 external bus into two separate buses: a

high-speed local bus to support memory chips fast enough for the 16-MHz 386,

and a slower I/O bus that supported existing expansion cards.

When you first looked at the Macintosh II, you may have said, “But it looks

just like a PC. ”You would have been right. Apple decided it was wiser to give

users a case they could open so they could upgrade it themselves. The monitor

in its 68020-powered machine was a separate unit that typically sat on top of

the CPU case.

UNIX had never been easy to use , and only now, 10 years later, are we

getting back to that level. Unfortunately, Steve Job's cube never developed the

software base it needed for long-term survival. Nonetheless, it survived as an

inspiration for future workstations.

Priced at less than $10,000, the elegant Nextstation came with a 25-MHz 68030

CPU, a 68882 FPU, 8 MB of RAM, and the first commercial magneto-optical drive

(256-MB capacity). It also had a built-in DSP (digital signal processor). The

programming language was object-oriented C, and the OS was a version of UNIX,

sugarcoated with a consistent GUI that rivaled Apple`s.

Necks UltraLite is the portable that put subnotebook into the

lexicon. Like Radio Shack's TRS-80 Model 100, the UltraLite was a 4-pounder

ahead of its time. Unlike the Model 100, it was expensive (starting price,

$2999), but it could run MS-DOS. (The burden of running Windows wasn't yet

thrust upon its shoulders.)

Fans liked the 4.4-pound UltraLite for its trim size and portability, but it

really needed one of today's tiny hard drives. It used battery-backed DRAM (1

MB, expandable to 2 MB) for storage, with ROM-based Traveling Software's

LapLink to move stored data to a desk top PC.

Foreshadowing PCMCIA, the UltraLite had a socket that accepted credit-card-

size ROM cards holding popular applications like WordPerfect or Lotus 1-2-3,

or a battery-backed 256-KB RAM card.

Sun SparcStation 1

It wasn't the first RISK workstation, nor even the first Sun system to use Sun's

new SPARC chip. But the SparcStation 1 set a new standard for

price/performance, churning out 12.5 MIPS at a starting price of only $8995 -

about what you might spend for a fully configured Macintosh. Sun sold lots of

systems and made the words SparcStation and workstation

synonymous in many peoples minds.

The SparcStation 1 also introduced S-Bus, Sun's proprietary 32-bit

synchronous bus, which ran at the same 20-MHz speed as the CPU.

IBM RS/6000

Sometimes, when IBM decides to do something, it does it right.(Other times...

Well, remember the PC jr.?)The RS/6000 allowed IBM to enter the workstation

market. The RS/6000`s RISK processor chip set (RIOS) racked up speed records

and introduced many to term suprscalar. But its price was more than

competitive. IBM pushed third-party software support, and as a result, many

desktop publishing, CAD, and scientific applications ported to the RS/6000,

running under AIX, IBM's UNIX.

A shrunken version of the multichip RS/6000 architecture serves as the basis

for the single-chip PowerPC, the non-x86-compatible processor with the best

chance of competing with Intel.

Apple Power Macintosh

Not many companies have made the transition from CISC to RISK this well. The

Power Macintosh represents Apple`s well-planned and successful leap to bridge

two disparate hardware platforms. Older Macs run Motorola's 680x0 CISK line,

which is running out of steam; the Power Macs run existing 680x0-based

applications yet provide Power PC performance, a combination that sold over a

million systems in a year.

IBM ThinkPad 701C

It is not often anymore that a new computer inspires gee-whiz sentiment, but

IBM's Butterfly subnotebook does, with its marvelous expanding keyboard. The

701C`s two-part keyboard solves the last major piece in the puzzle of

building of usable subnotebook: how to provide comfortable touch-typing.(OK,

so the floppy drive is sill external.)

With a full-size keyboard and a 10.4-inch screen, the 4.5-pound 701C compares

favorably with full-size notebooks. Battery life is good, too.

The development of computers in ukraine and the former USSR

The government and the authorities had paid serious attention to the

development of the computer industry right after the Second World War. The

leading bodies considered this task to be one of the principal for the

national economy.

Up to the beginning of the 1950s there were only small productive capacities

which specialized in the producing accounting and account-perforating

(punching) machines. The electronic numerical computer engineering was only

arising and the productive capacities for it were close to the naught.

The first serious steps in the development of production base were made

initially in the late 1950s when the work on creating the first industry

samples of the electronic counting machines was finished and there were

created M-20, “Ural-1”, “Minsk-1”, which together with their semi-conductor

successors (M-220, “Ural-11-14”, “Minsk-22” and “Minsk-32”) created in the

1960s were the main ones in the USSR until the computers of the third

generation were put into the serial production, that is until the early

1970s.

In the 1960s the science-research and assembling base was enlarged. As the

result of this measures, all researches connected with creating and putting

into the serial production of semi-conductor electronic computing machines

were almost finished. That allowed to stop the production of the first

generation machines beginning from the 1964.

Next decades the whole branch of the computer engineering had been created. The

important steps were undertaken to widen the productive capacities for the 3

d generation machines.

Kiev

the homecity of mesm

MESM was conceived by S.A.Lebedev to be a model of a Big Electronic Computing

Machine (BESM). At first it was called the Model of the Big Electronic

Computing Machine, but ,later, in the process of its creation there appeared

the evident expediency of transforming it in a small computer. For that reason

there were added: the impute-output devices, magnetic drum storage, the

register capacity was enhanced; and the word “Model” was changed for “

Malaya” (Small).

S.A.Lebedev was proposed to head the Institute of Energetics in Kiev. After a

year; when the Institute of was divided into two departments: the

electronical one and the department of heat-and-power engineering, Lebedev

became the director of the first one. He also added his laboratory of

analogue computation to the already existing ones of the electronical type.

At once he began to work on computer science instead of the usual, routine

researches in the field of engineering means of stabilization and structures

of automated devices. Lebedev was awarded the State Prize of the USSR. Since

autumn 1948 Lebedev directed his laboratory towards creating the MESM. The

most difficult part of the work was the practical creation of MESM. It might

be only the many-sided experience of the researches that allowed the

scientist to fulfill the task perfectly; whereas one inaccuracy was made: the

hall at the ground-floor of a two-storied building was assigned for MESM and

when, at last, the MESM was assembled and switched on, 6,000 of red-hot

electronic lamps created the “tropics” in the hall, so they had to remove a

part of the ceiling to decrease the temperature.

In autumn 1951 the machine executed a complex program rather stabile.

ÒÍÅ MESM WITH SOME OF THE PERSONAL (KIEV, 1951)

Finally all the tests were over and on December, 15 the MESM was put into

operation.

If to remember those short terms the MESM was projected, assembled, and

debugged - in two years - and taking into consideration that only 12 people

(including Lebedev) took part in the creating who were helped by 15 engineers

we shall see that S.A.Lebedev and his team accomplished a feat (200 engineers

and many workers besides 13 main leaders took part in the creation of the

first American computer ENIAC).

As life have showed the foundations of the computer-building laid by Lebedev

are used in modern computers without any fundamental changes. Nowadays they

are well known:

· such devices an arithmetic and memory input-output and control ones

should be a part of a computer architecture;

· the program of computing is encoded and stored in the memory as

numbers;

· the binary system should be used for encoding the numbers and commands;

· the computations should be made automatically basing on the program

stored in the memory and operations on commands;

· besides arithmetic, logical operations are used: comparisons,

conjunction, disjunction, and negation;

· the hierarchy memory method is used;

· the numerical methods are used for solving the tasks.

The main fault of The 70s

or

the years of “might-have-been hopes”

The great accumulated experience in creating computers, the profound

comparison of our domestic achievements with the new examples of foreign

computer technique prompted the scientists that it is possible to create the

computing means of new generation meeting the world standards. Of that

opinion were many outstanding Ukrainian scientists of that time - Lebedev,

Dorodnitsin, Glushkov and others. They proceeded from quite a favorable

situation in the country.

The computerization of national economy was considered as one of the most

essential tasks. The decision to create the United system of computers - the

machines of new generation on integrals.

The USA were the first to create the families of computers. In 1963-64

the IBM Company worked out the IBM-360 system. It comprised the models with

different capacities for which a wide range of software was created.

A decision concerning the third generation of computers (their structure and

architecture) was to be made in the USSR in the late 60s.

But instead of making the decision based on the scientific grounds concerning

the future of the United system of computers the Ministry of Electronic

Industry issued the administrative order to copy the IBM-360 system. The

leaders of the Ministry did not take into consideration the opinion of the

leading scientists of the country.

Despite the fact that there were enough grounds for thinking the 70s would

bring new big progresses, those years were the step back due to the fault way

dictated by the highest authorities from above.

The comparison of the computer development

in the usa and ukraine

At the time when the computer science was just uprising this two countries

were one of the most noticeably influential. There were a lot of talented

scientists and inventors in both of them. But the situation in Ukraine (which

at that time was one of 15 Republics of the former USSR) was complicated, on

one hand, with the consequences of the Second World War and, on the other

hand, at a certain period Cybernetics and Computer Science were not

acknowledged. Of cause, later it went to the past, but nevertheless it played

a negative role on the Ukrainian computer development.

It also should be noticed that in America they paid more attention to the

development of computers for civil and later personal use. But in Ukraine the

attention was mainly focused on the military and industrial needs.

Another interesting aspect of the Ukrainian computer development was the

process of the 70s when “sovietizing” of the IBM-360 system became the first

step on the way of weakening of positions achieved by the Soviet machinery

construction the first two decades of its development. The next step that led

to the further lag was the mindless copying by the SU Ministry of Electronic

Industry and putting into production the next American elaborations in the

field of microprocessor equipment.

The natural final stage was buying in enormous quantities of foreign

computers last years and pressing to the deep background our domestic

researches, and developments, and the computer-building industry on the

whole.

Another interesting aspect of the Ukrainian computer development was the

process of the 70s when the “sovietising” of the IBM-360 system became the

first step on the way of weakening of positions, achieved by the Soviet

machinery construction of the first two decades of its development. The next

step that led to the further lag was the mindless copying of the next

American elaborations in the field of microprocessor technique by the

Ministry of Computer Industry.

CONCLUSION

Having analyzed the development of computer science in two countries I have

found some similar and some distinctive features in the arising of computers.

First of all, I would like to say that at the first stages the two countries

rubbed shoulders with each other. But then, at a certain stage the USSR was

sadly mistaken having copied the IBM-360 out of date technology. Estimating

the discussion of possible ways of the computer technique development in the

former USSR in late 1960s - early 1970s from the today point of view it can

be noticed that we have chosen a worse if not the worst one. The only

progressive way was to base on our domestic researches and to collaborate

with the west-European companies in working out the new generation of

machines. Thus we would reach the world level of production, and we would

have a real base for the further development together with leading European

companies.

Unfortunately the last twenty years may be called the years of “unrealized

possibilities”. Today it is still possible to change the situation; but

tomorrow it will be too late.

Will the new times come? Will there be a new renaissance of science,

engineering and national economy as it was in the post-war period? Only one

thing remains for us - that is to wait, to hope and to do our best to reach

the final goal.

bibliography:

1. Stephen G. Nash “A History of Scientific Computing”, ACM Press History

Cliffs, New Jersey, 1985.